A Synopsis of the Art of Balāghah
A few days ago a student of Nadwat al-ʿUlamāʾ expressed the wish that the foundational discussions of the art of balāghah be presented in such a manner that the very spirit of this discipline become clear, the mutual relationship of its various components be understood, and its acquisition not remain confined to the memorisation of terms and definitions; rather, the student should also acquire the taste for discerning the merits and flaws of speech, for understanding the causes of its impact, and for delighting in its literary subtleties. This request directed my attention to the question of under which basic principles the scattered discussions of balāghah might be arranged, so that the student, having passed through the particulars of the discipline, might reach its overall conception. The present writing is being penned with this very aim in view.
Balāghah, in truth, is the name of the most effective conveyance of thought and feeling through language. It is not merely the craft of arranging words, ornamenting expression or employing literary devices; rather, it is a subtle capacity whereby the speaker renders what is in his heart in such a way that his intent reaches the addressee with complete clarity, that his feelings are properly represented, and that the speech proves effective in relation to its purpose. In other words, balāghah is the art of creating harmony between thought and expression, speaker and listener, meaning and style. The eloquence of speech does not depend solely on what is said, but also on to whom it is said, on what occasion, in which words and with what manner. This is precisely the distinction that transforms an ordinary, correct statement into speech that is powerful, pleasing and of lofty calibre.
At this juncture the distinction must be kept in mind that linguistic correctness and balāghah are two separate, though inter-related, levels. Adherence to lexical, morphological and syntactic rules is the basic condition for the correctness of speech, yet mere adherence does not necessarily yield balāghah. An utterance may be correct according to the rules, yet remain dry, ineffective and inapt: the words may be right, but the choice may not respect the occasion; there may be no semantic wisdom in the arrangement of sentences, and nothing in the mode of utterance that can affect the mind and heart of the hearer. Balāghah raises this correctness to a higher plane, where words, owing to their choice, arrangement and style, become partners in the efficacy of the meaning, not mere carriers of it.
One great loss resulting from unfamiliarity with balāghah is that a person cannot fully appreciate the worth of fine speech. He reads the words of poetry yet does not reach the depth of the feeling concealed within them; he understands the purport of prose yet remains deprived of its stylistic subtlety, structural elegance and persuasive force. This very deprivation can also serve as a significant obstacle in studying the iʿjāz al-bayān of the Qurʾān. The Qurʾān’s message, in terms of guidance and meaning, addresses both heart and mind, but the perception of its unique order, the variety of its styles, the power of its parables and the profundity of its expressions is further refined by linguistic and literary insight. On the other hand, unfamiliarity with balāghah also affects one’s own writing and speaking. Very often a learned person may possess extraordinary command over intricate discussions, yet cannot present his ideas in such a way that they become intelligible and effective for others. The value of knowledge is indisputable, but the ability to convey that knowledge to others is likewise an essential constituent of its usefulness. It is a great privation for thinkers and men of letters that they have much to say, yet the manner of saying does not fully represent their learning and thought.
To understand the discussions of balāghah it is necessary to keep before one the reality and mutual relationship of its three fundamental branches: ʿilm al-maʿānī, ʿilm al-bayān and ʿilm al-badīʿ. All three aim to render speech balīgh, yet each treats that aim from a particular angle. ʿIlm al-maʿānī teaches the suitability of speech and the observance of the demands of circumstance; ʿilm al-bayān sets forth the ways of making meaning clear, tangible and effective through different styles; and ʿilm al-badīʿ examines the lexical and semantic beauties of speech, through which its attractiveness and aesthetic value are enhanced. Thus it may be said that ʿilm al-maʿānī is concerned with what to say, to whom, and how, ʿilm al-bayān with the form in which meaning is made more effective, and ʿilm al-badīʿ with those aspects of stylistic beauty that render speech still more delightful.
ʿIlm al-maʿānī is the foundation of balāghah which grants the speaker the awareness that the appropriateness of expression changes with the variation of situations, purposes and audiences. No single manner of expression suits every occasion: at times brevity is required, at times detail; sometimes emphasis is needed, sometimes a plain statement suffices; at times direct expression is more effective, and at times an indirect rendering is more fitting. The discussions of khabar and inshāʾ, mention and deletion, precedence and postponement, definiteness and indefiniteness, restriction, connecting and separating, brevity and expansiveness, and the modes of emphasis clarify this reality from various angles. Their real purpose is not to provide a stock of terms, but to acquaint one with the wisdom that operates behind the choice of words and the arrangement of sentences. Firdawsī’s Shāhnāmah, Saʿdī’s Gulistān, Mīr Anīs’s marāthī and Sulaymān Nadwī’s Khuṭabāt-i Madrās are noteworthy examples for the study of how the suitability of subject, occasion, emotion and manner of expression imparts power and effect to speech. The usefulness of this discipline is not confined to literature; in fiqh, uṣūl, law, politics, economics and other fields of learning, observing it is also indispensable for effective expression. Scholarly discourse attains its purpose better only when its language, arrangement and style are suited to its subject and audience.
ʿIlm al-bayān relates to that capacity through which one and the same meaning can be rendered in different forms and its clarity and effect enhanced. The human mind sometimes understands a reality better when it is presented through an example, a simile, a metaphor or an allegory than when it is stated directly. To call a person brave is to convey an attribute, but to liken him to a lion evokes, along with courage, an entire conception of awe, strength and daring. Likewise, the expression that a person’s heart has been sealed or a covering placed upon his sight does not merely report a condition, it presents it in a perceptible, pictorial form. Tashbīh, istiʿārah, majāz and kināyah are the basic discussions of ʿilm al-bayān, the study of which helps us understand how words, going beyond their literal meaning, create a wider semantic atmosphere.
In the Noble Qurʾān the Lord says: Inn alladhīna kafarū sawāʾun ʿalayhim a-andhartahum am lam tundhirhum lā yuʾminūn, that is, for those who persist in denial it is alike whether you warn them or do not warn them; they will not believe. Thereafter it is said: khatama-llāhu ʿalā qulūbihim wa ʿalā samʿihim wa ʿalā abṣārihim ghishāwah. In these expressions the spiritual state is brought forth with a force that reveals the pictorial and impressionistic grandeur of Qurʾānic style. Likewise, in Arabic prose the writings of al-Jāḥiẓ, Ibn al-Muqaffaʿ and al-Zamakhsharī, and in Urdu prose the letters of Ghālib and the writings of Sir Sayyid Aḥmad Khān, Shiblī Nuʿmānī, Mahdī Afādī and Niyāz Fatiḥpūrī are useful for studying how tashbīh, istiʿārah, tamthīl and kināyah grant prose semantic breadth and literary life. The fruit of ʿilm al-bayān is that meaning should not merely be transferred to the mind, but should also manifest itself in its most fitting form.
ʿIlm al-badīʿ is that branch of balāghah which discusses the causes of the lexical and semantic beauty of speech. Human nature does not rest content with the correctness of meaning alone; it wishes also to sense proportion, harmony, freshness and charm in expression. Hence some utterances are acceptable because of their purport, while others, along with purport, lodge in the memory through the excellence of their style. Ṭibāq, muqābalah, jinās, sajʿ and other lexical and semantic devices bring this beauty to prominence. Yet the worth of these devices lies not in their abundance but in their appropriate use. When a device arises naturally from the need of meaning, it augments the charm of speech; but when employed merely for show, it becomes affectation and can damage the simplicity and effectiveness of speech. The Maqāmāt of Badīʿ al-Zamān Hamaḍānī and the Maqāmāt of Ḥarīrī are famous specimens for the study of this art, though in some passages the profusion of device also teaches the lesson that verbal embellishment must not overpower meaning and purpose. True beauty is that which issues from the inner content of speech and illumines its meaning yet further.
The study of these three sciences is undertaken separately, but in high-level speech their excellences are often so joined that it becomes difficult to separate them. ʿIlm al-maʿānī makes speech appropriate to circumstance, ʿilm al-bayān grants meaning clarity and effect, and ʿilm al-badīʿ refines its beauty and elegance. If a preacher wishes to impress upon an audience the importance of knowledge, he must first select his words in keeping with their intellectual level and the occasion—this is the demand of ʿilm al-maʿānī. Then, if he likens knowledge to a light that illumines the paths of thought, that is an illustration from ʿilm al-bayān. And if, through suitable verbal harmony or semantic contrast, he renders his sentence more delightful, that pertains to ʿilm al-badīʿ. This division is for understanding; in practice a fine sentence may embody all three qualities. Therefore to regard balāghah merely as a collection of devices and terms is to remain unaware of its true spirit. Its real excellence lies in creating a proper relationship among thought, expression, occasion and beauty.
For the acquisition of balāghah, copious reading of exemplary literature, reflection on the merits of fine speech, comparison of different stylistic samples and constant practice of expression are indispensable. A student ought, whilst reading any passage, not merely to be content with its content, but also to observe why the author chose a particular word, what wisdom lies in the ordering of sentences, what addition a simile made to the meaning, and through which causes the passage derived its impact. Along with this, the exercise is useful of rendering a noble passage in different words, then comparing the original and alternative expressions, and trying to understand their semantic and stylistic differences. In this manner balāghah ceases to be mere bookish information and becomes a living literary taste and practical skill. Nevertheless, throughout this process it is necessary to avoid affectation. The aim of balāghah is not to adorn every sentence with devices, but to adopt the best mode of expression according to the purpose. When simplicity accords with the occasion it is itself balāghah, and when ornament serves meaning it becomes a means of the beauty of speech.
In the present age the importance of balāghah has increased still further. Despite the abundance of information, effective communication remains a constant problem. Scholarly discussions are often confined within such terminology and complex expression that their benefit remains limited to a narrow circle. Religious and intellectual discourse too sometimes loses its impact because it does not take account of the mental level of the audience, its questions, and its capacity of understanding. In such an environment it is necessary for the man of learning, together with deep insight into his subject, to possess mastery over language and expression. He must know where brevity is better, where detail unavoidable, where argument is required, where example is more effective, and where a concise and balīgh sentence can prove more fruitful than a lengthy explanation. For students of the religious sciences this ability is particularly important, because they face diverse demands such as understanding the scholarly legacy, explaining religious ideas, and conversing with the contemporary mind. To fulfil these aims, transparency of expression and power of speech are as necessary as depth of knowledge.
The upshot is that the spirit of balāghah is encompassed in three basic principles: the speech should accord with the occasion, the meaning should be rendered in a clear and effective manner, and there should also be natural beauty and charm in the utterance. ʿIlm al-maʿānī, ʿilm al-bayān and ʿilm al-badīʿ respectively elaborate and explain these principles. Words are the outward form of speech, meaning its soul, and style the subtle link between the two that renders thought intelligible and feeling communicable. When these elements are joined in proper proportion, speech ceases to be merely a medium of conveying information; it gains the power to illuminate the mind, awaken the feeling and satisfy the taste.
If the student of balāghah does not confine this discipline to an examination requirement or to the memorisation of terms, but adopts it as a comprehensive study of language, thought, communication and aesthetics, its acquisition will not only polish his literary taste, but will also render his writing and speaking more meaningful, effective and delightful. This is the true synopsis of balāghah: the correctness of meaning, the suitability of expression, the impact of rendering and the beauty of style—all these combine to raise speech to that rank where it is not only understood, but also felt.
